Community Policing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Community Policing - Essay Example approach it recognizes that crime is a community and not exclusively police problem, so that the effective solutions may be found only in case of the community involvement into the problem solving. It is a long-term process of identifying, analyzing and developing solutions to community problems. Community policing is rather directed at community issues and fear of crime problem than at the actual crime. Besides, crime prevention, the three core components of community policing are community partnership, problem solving and organizational change. They are represented in three major principles: shared responsibility, prevention, increased officer discretion. Shared responsibility means that there is frequent and on-going interaction between the community members and police, built on mutual trust and cooperation. It is recognized that ‘police work is not an isolated activity performed in a social vacuum and even traditional police work, including preventative patrol, rapid respon se, and apprehending offenders, cannot be performed without the regular cooperation of the citizens’ (Bad-Boys Net. 2007). The community members are to be actively involved in crime prevention through timely reporting crimes and organizing volunteer patrol groups. Though traditional arrests are necessary, there are alternative, less traditional ways of effective dealing with crime problem. Currently, these methods are used after the arrest has taken place. Police is to react to all the problems distinguished by the community, demonstrating respect for all residents. An officer is given enough time to get acquainted with the community and participate in community activities. Prevention is directed at diagnosing the problem before the crime has been committed, or analyzing the criminal conditions with the aim of altering them. This presupposes the involvement of police and community, public and non-profit organizations. Increased officer discretion suggests that community polic ing is based

Discrimination and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 Essay Example for Free

Discrimination and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 Essay The South was racially biased for years after the Civil War. The Southern states would create legislation to enact â€Å"Jim Crow† laws upon the black community. Segregation was at its peak in the United States and the black community had been oppressed long enough. Conforming to the segregated South only caused hostility. The government that recognized blacks as members of society ignored them. In fact, the government that could protect the black community from the violence incurred by terrorist groups was often members of the groups themselves. Rebellion was the only and final option. In order for the Voting Rights Act of 1965 to be ratified by Congress, the black community needed to rebel against the â€Å"Jim Crow† laws of the South, the violence invoked by hate organizations, as well as (with assistance from white college students) the hypocrisies of the United States government. Jim Crow became a general term used in the South to refer to the segregation and discrimination laws that affected African-American life. The name originated from â€Å"an 1832 song called Jump Jim Crow by Thomas Rice† (Hillstrom 9). The song may have been named after a slave that Rice knew or from the expression â€Å"black as a crow†. The main purpose of Jim Crow laws was to segregate and disenfranchise the black community. During the Jim Crow era, â€Å"various states passed laws that banned blacks from hospitals, schools, parks, theaters, and restaurants† (Hillstrom 9). In all cases, the facilities marked colored  were noticeably inferior to the whites. Many cities and states would ratify their own specific Jim Crow laws. Some laws such as blacks having to cross the street when a white woman, on the same sidewalk, was walking toward them or â€Å"maintaining a separate building, on separate ground, for the admission, care, instruction, and support of all blind persons of colored or black race† (Bell 4) were absurd. In the summer of 1955, a 14-year-old boy was brutally beaten and killed for allegedly whistling at a white woman. The husband and brother-in-law of the woman were charged with murder but were acquitted of all charges after only sixty minutes of deliberation. In an interview months later, with protection from the Constitutional clause of double jeopardy, both brothers openly admitted, without remorse, to maiming and killing the boy. The quick deliberation and acquittal outraged the country and helped to energize the Civil Rights Movement. The Jim Crow laws were progressively getting worse for the black community. Lawmakers needed to be black, or abolitionists, in order for the laws to change. Rebellion by way of the ballot box was the answer. In The United States, the democratic process is supposed to allow voters a chance to correct social injustices. Citizens within the black community should have the ability to vote black candidates into office. Blacks could elect city council members, mayors, judges, and even state representatives. But in Mississippi the people in power, all of whom were white, denied blacks the opportunity to vote. The white community believed that if blacks achieved the right to vote, they would make up the majority. The black majority would force out the racist whites from power and change the social injustices. Mississippi Senator Eugene Bilbo stated, â€Å"If you let a few (blacks) register to vote this year, next year there will be twice as many, and the first thing you know, the whole thing will be out of hand† (Aretha 20). The black community needed to vote in order to achieve change. Without the right to vote, segregation and the disenfranchisement of African-Americans would cease to change. The southern-white lawmakers created a complicated system to keep African-Americans from voting. â€Å"White local and state officials systematically kept blacks from voting through formal methods, such as poll taxes and literacy tests† (Summer 1964). The literacy test prevented even educated African-Americans from achieving voter registration. The test required voters to â€Å"read and interpret a section of the state constitution to the â€Å"satisfactory† of the registrar† (Aretha 21). This allowed â€Å"white registrars to decide whether or not a person passed. Most blacks, even those with doctoral degrees, failed† (Cozzens 1). Fear was a constant tactic for the racist south. Black applicants â€Å"had to give, under oath, information about his or her address, employment, and family members. This information would then be given to the applicants employer, the KKK, and other organizations† (Let Freedom Ring 149). Having the bravery to rebel against society, by registering to vote, caused many blacks to fear retaliation from the KKK and their employer. In the post-Civil War era many white Southerners resented the changes imposed by the Union. In the years during Reconstruction, terrorist groups sprang up all over the south. The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) and the White Citizens Council, â€Å"the uptown Klan†, which was often made up of sheriffs, doctors, lawyers, and even mayors, quickly gain thousands of members across the south. The KKK had four explicit tactics in their war against blacks, â€Å"First was cross burning, second would be the burning and dynamiting of houses and buildings, third was flogging, and the Fourth was extermination† (Watson 143). In 1964, a single Mississippian county had â€Å"37 churches and 30 black homes and businesses were firebombed or burned, and the cases often went unsolved† (Summer 1964). Hate crimes were becoming increasingly common and extremely brutal throughout the South. The black community needed and sought change. After many years of brutality and hatred, many blacks believed they were inferior to whites. To combat the inferiority thought, Bob Moses created â€Å"Freedom Schools† and community centers open to the black community. â€Å"The community centers would offer facilities limited by the Jim Crow system: libraries, arts and crafts, daycare, and literacy classes† (Burner 124). Freedom Schools taught students African-American history and current events. Moses saw the Freedom Schools â€Å"as an opportunity to teach the â€Å"politics of Mississippi† and begin to build a core of educated leadership in the state† (Burner 124). Members of SNCC and CORE believed that rebellion was a necessity, and rebelling with nonviolent methods would allow the nation to see the atrocities inflicted in the south. In order to gain momentum, the black community needed assistance from the federal government and the national media. The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) came to the forefront for reform. In 1961, seven blacks and six whites tested the federal law, which called for the desegregation on interstate travel. Called the Freedom Riders, thirteen people â€Å"rode buses into the south, daring the federal government to enforce the law. The Freedom Riders were arrested in North Carolina, beaten by mobs in South Carolina, and saw their buses fire bombed in Alabama† (Watson 24). The thirteen men rode into the south with whites sitting in the back of the bus, the blacks in the front, and would use the same facilities at bus stations as stated by federal law. James Farmer, one of the thirteen riders and the director of CORE (Congress of Racial Equality) stated, â€Å"We felt we could count on the racists of the South to create a crisis so that the federal government would be compelled to enforce the law† (Cozzens 1). The rebellion of the thirteen brave men to ride into the south created the national media attention the activist desperately needed. The national media started to show the country how hypocritical the United States had become. Men of many races fought for their country in a time of war, but came home to a country that was at war within itself. In the early 1960’s, the black community rebelling for equal rights began to capture the attention of Americans across the country. 1964, a presidential election year, was a pivotal time to rebel for the African-American right to vote. For generations the south held a dominant Democratic Party. Rebelling against the injustices set by the â€Å"whites-only† Democratic Party could only be changed by use of the ballot box. Bob Moses, a member of SNCC, decided to send volunteers into Mississippi to register voters. The voter registration drive came to be known as â€Å"Freedom Summer†. Bob Moses outlined the goals of Freedom Summer as to increase black voter registration and to organize a legally constituted â€Å"Freedom Democratic Party† to compete with the whites-only Democratic Party. Moses instructed recruits, â€Å"Don’t come to Mississippi this summer to save the Mississippi Negro. Only come if you understand, really understand, that his freedom and yours are one† (Aretha 41). To achieve the attention of the national media, Moses and other members of SNCC decided to recruit white college students from the north. â€Å"Violence against Northern Whites would at least get Mississippi on the nightly news† (Rachall 173). Children of the dominant social class, rebelling against their parents and the accepted society of the south, in fact attracted national attention. Moses stated, â€Å"These students bring the rest of the country with them. They are from good schools and their parents are influential. The interest of the country is awakened and when that happens, the government responds† (Aretha 30). Rebelling against the hypocrisies of their nation, their parents, and even society, white college students came by the hundreds to volunteer for â€Å"Freedom Summer†. Volunteers went to Oxford, Ohio, currently the campus of Miami University, for a weeklong orientation. Volunteers were not going to be paid and would need to support themselves. They were told to bring money for living expenses, bail, and even medical bills if necessary. The volunteers had to be prepared for death. James Forman, of SNCC, told the volunteers, â€Å"I may be killed, you may be killed, the whole staff may be killed† (Cozzens 3). The students were told that if arrested, go to jail quietly. The authorities would have cause to react violently if volunteers were to resist. The national media and the south would exploit the aggression and discredit the actions of a nonaggressive rebellion. Rebellious college students used Hitler and Mussolini’s ideologies, fascism and the idea of a united master race, as a direct correlation to what was happening to blacks in the South. World War II was only twenty years prior and the Cold War was just beginning. Many Americans still held hostility towards Germany and the idea of racial class distinctions. The spread of communism and Nuclear War were constant backdrops to every evening newscast. If the United States could announce to the world their â€Å"Policy of Containment† then the world should hear about hypocrisy within the United States. The Blacks and volunteers used the memories of the war to prove how fascist ideas were being entertained. Rebelling and protesting would allow the world to see the deceitful ways America. In June 1964 rebellion against hate crimes, voter rights, and the segregation of blacks was underway. A Michigan State student said of their arrival in Mississippi, â€Å"The greyhound bus dropped us off on a residential street, we had no idea where we were. Almost immediately we found ourselves being circled by pickup trucks with rifles and big dogs in the back† (Aretha 47). Jane Adams, Southern Illinois University, stated, â€Å"Mississippi had geared up for war. They saw us as invaders coming in for a complete assault on their way of life. Everybody on both sides expected that there would be a bloodbath. We all expected we could die† (Aretha 47). Two white men and a black man rebelling against southern society were easy targets for police. Two white men, Michael Schwerner and Andrew Goodman, as well as a black volunteer James Chaney were last seen going to a bombed out church to offer their condolences to the congregation and to offer their assistance with the investigation. The men disappeared after being singled out by the racist authorities. The next day, staff called police when the three men failed to check in at their headquarters. The police, often members of the KKK, often used their authority to invoke fear into both black and white volunteers. KKK pamphlets declared, â€Å"We are now in the midst of the long, hot summer of agitation which was promised to the Innocent People of Mississippi by the savage blacks and their communist masters† (Watson 142). After the disappearance of Schwerner, Goodman, and Chaney, President Johnson and the FBI became involved. The story of the missing, as well as the peaceful rebellion, quickly gained national attention. Two of the men’s skin color became a key factor for the instant media. Rita Shwerner declared, â€Å"We all know that the search with hundreds of sailors is because my husband and Goodman are white. If only Chaney was involved, nothing would have been done† (Rachal 168). The media may have not paid much attention if only a black man went missing. The media told the story of the missing men on nationally televised nightly newscasts and public outcry immediately followed. Finally the south received assistance from the federal government. Lyndon Johnson sent hundreds of men from the military to search for the three men. As the search went on, the Mississippi Governor and a member of the White Citizens Council exclaimed, â€Å"Of course I don’t approve of murder, but those kids were asking for trouble† (Aretha 50). The shot and beaten bodies of the missing men were found after a month. It later surfaced that the local police arrested the three men for speeding. After dark, the police released the men to the KKK. Eighteen men were originally arrested but only a few were convicted and served light sentences. Finally in 2005, 41 years after the murders, Edgar Ray Killen was convicted of manslaughter and sentenced to three life sentences, without the possibility of parole, to be served in succession. After the deaths of Schwerner, Goodman, and Chaney was the perfect time for blacks to rebel louder. To achieve the voting rights for the segregated community, the rebellious blacks and whites created a stronger alliance than ever before. By coming together, the black community showed America that the rebellion would not end until equal rights and the ability to vote was achieved. The summer of 1964 became the high water mark for equal rights in America. â€Å"Freedom Summer† along with nonviolent protests across the south lead to the signing of Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The Voting Rights Act â€Å"prohibits voting practices or procedures that discriminate on the basis of race, color. Discrimination to voting applies nationwide to any voting standard, practice, or procedure that results in the denial of the right of any citizen to vote. Section 2 is permanent and has no expiration date† (Section 2). Rebellion was a necessity to end the disenfranchisement of the African-American community. Rebellion for the black community was not to conform to the racist south, but to consciously do the opposite. Without rebellion and bravery the south may have never changed. Volunteer Bruce Hartford professed, â€Å"We used to say: If you don’t like the history they’re teaching you in school, go out and make some of your own† (Aretha 35).

Competitive advantage and the Dangote Group and MTN Nigeria

Competitive advantage and the Dangote Group and MTN Nigeria The efficiency and effectiveness of any firm is dependent on the activities of other companies, be it a competitor, a supplier of raw materials to the firm or the distributor of its finished goods. In an attempt for a firm to expand its growth and further improve on its performance, it seeks a means of gaining a competitive advantage in the market. As such the firm may want to gain more control of activities that leads to the creation and distribution of its product, delivery of services or the chose to merger with or acquire similar companies so as to curb the threat to which competing firms pose. For the purpose of this research, the study would shed light on the activities of two firms based in Nigeria Dangote Group MTN Nigeria Both companies have impacted greatly on the economy of Nigeria and are leading figures in their respective sectors. These companies have had to employ business Integration methods to further boost the products or services they provide. The primary aim of a firm that chooses to employing vertical, horizontal or conglomerate integration is for the company to grow and gain market power thereby increasing its market share and/or product and service range. The research will explore Integration, the types of integration. It will also provide insight into how the firms were able to exploit the various integration methods furthermore the benefits of integration to the firms and the disadvantages of employing these forms of organising production. Before analysing the various forms of integration adopted by both companies, the work will offer a proper understanding of the following What is Vertical Integration? What is Horizontal Integration? What is Conglomerate Integration? Vertical Integration Vertical integration can be referred to as the process by which a company or firm takes control of the activities that influence the production and/or distribution of its goods and services. This to gain more control of the activities related to production and distribution of company goods, for strategic reasons and also to cut cost by owning the sources to which it relies on for raw materials, intermediate or complimentary goods. At the completion of a product, the distribution of these finished goods to the final consumer in the most efficient and efficient manner is crucial to the company, the company can either delivers the goods to middlemen or retail outlet, it can also rely on the distribution companies such as Inter-Distribution Company in Nigeria. The control of activities for which a company relies on for the completion of its product or service is referred to as backward (upstream) integration, this means that the company tries to gain control of the services provided by its suppliers; these could be raw materials, intermediate goods and complimentary goods. An example of backward integration is when a company that manufactures Chocolate decides to start growing Cocoa. When a company takes control of close to sale post-production activities such as distribution, it is referred to as forward (downstream) integration. An example of this is how the Coca Cola Company distributes its products to numerous outlets. The firm can also opt to engage both backward and forward integration, this is referred to as balanced integration. Horizontal integration Horizontal integration can be referred to as an expansion of a firm either by the act merging or acquiring a business or businesses in the same industry that produce similar products and/or provide similar services. It is a course of action that allows companies that are competitors of the same products or services to come together as one, thereby broadening its activities, scope and market size. An example is the recent consolidation exercise that took place in the Nigerian Banking Industry, which saw Banks being acquired or merging with another Bank in trying to meet up with the N25 billion Naira minimum capital base set by the Central bank of Nigeria. Horizontal Integration can result in a company producing different varieties of the same product or different products that meet the same demand. Horizontal Integration is not without its setbacks, this will be analysed proper with particular reference to MTN Nigeria. Conglomerate Integration Conglomerate Integration can be referred as the coming together of diverse businesses to form as one, providing a wide range of services to different market segments. The businesses that come together are not rivals, as they do not produce the same goods or render similar services. This is in an attempt to create a solid corporate body that is able to reach out into different markets. DANGOTE GROUP The company started as a small cement trading business in 1981 and later diversified into a conglomerate with businesses located in Nigeria, Benin, Ghana and Togo. It is currently engaged in the activities listed below Sugar Manufacturing Refining, Packaging and Distribution Salt Refining, Packaging and Distribution Cement Manufacturing/ Importing, Packing and Distribution Noodles Manufacturing and Distribution Flour Milling, Packaging and Distribution Poly Products Manufacturing Pasta Manufacturing and Distribution Real Estate Logistics Port Management Logistics Haulage Dangote Group in itself is a conglomerate and it has employed the various forms of integration, a relationship exists between these businesses. It should be noted that figures quoted about Dangote Group are related only to their activities within Nigeria and were sourced from the information the firm made available to the public. DANGOTE CEMENT PLC Dangote Cement Plc (DCP) is made up of a combination of six cement terminals and three plants, including the widely publicized Obajana Cement plant, which is the largest cement plant is the sub-Saharan Africa. The company recently merged with Benue Cement Company (BCC), in previous years, the Dangote Cement Plc (DCP) owned shares in Benue Cement Company (BCC). The coming together of these two companies is a horizontal Integration. Cement is produced and imported in trying to meet demand, the transportation of these materials from the sea port to factories and distribution of finished goods is carried out by a company called Dangote Transport (DanTrans). The haulage business is run by Dangote Group and it provides freight services with a fleet of over 5,000 trucks. By controlling the movement of materials and finished goods, the firm has employed vertical integration. It has expanded in a way that it now controls downstream activities. This is also referred to as forward integration. The merger of Dangote Cement Plc and Benue Cement Company has presented enormous benefits. The merger has streamlined the management of both companies, giving the newly merged companies positional advantage which will in turn give the company the power to act effectively, thereby leading to a positive operational and administrative economies of scale. The merger will increase the production capacity, as the company will see its production capacity increase to 20 million metric tonnes annually. Obajana plant alone currently has an annual production capacity of 5.2 million metric tonnes which will increase product capacity by 5 million metric tonnes at the end of the first half of 2011. Benue Cement Company currently produces 3 million metric tonnes and is also expected to increase to four million metric tonnes by the end of 2011. The increase in capacity is made possible because the coming together of the two companies has led to better access to financing. Nigeria cement production is below demand, that is why Dangote Cement Company imports cement, so as to meet demand. A rise in production will see the companys dependence on import reduce which will in turn lead to an increase in turnover, this means that shareholders will reap greater dividend and also gain in share value. The merger will lead to greater operational integration between the two companies, because they will be able to share facilities, inventory and other resources. This is referred to as Synergies. Benue Cement Company will be able to benefit from the superior production technology of DCP and this will significantly reduce the cost of operation. As the company production increases, more profit is made. In line with the companys ambition to expand it will create more jobs, as there will be an increase in the demand for manpower. Dangote Cement Company is the highest producer in the country, it is not without competition. One of its core competitors is the Ashaka Cement Company located mainly in the northern region of the country. With regards to the threat posed by rival companies, the merger will further strengthen the company giving it a wider geographical advantage by the size of its market share. DANGOTE SUGAR REFINERY PLC Dangote Sugar Refinery Plc manufactures Sugar and has its refinery located in lagos, Nigeria. It started production in 2000 and currently has an annual production capacity of 1.4 million metric tonnes. Its production capacity is currently being increased to 2.5 metric tonnes a year which will make it the largest sugar refinery in the world. Dangote Group operates a Sugarcane farming, processing and refining plant called Savannah Sugar Company Limited (SSCL) located in Adamawa, Nigeria. This company was established by the Federal Government of Nigeria in 1997 and was acquired by Dangote Group in 2003. Savannah Sugar Company Limited has a current production capacity of 50,000 metric tonnes per annum as such Dangote Sugar Refinery partly relies on the importation of raw sugar from Brazil, it intends to further reduce that dependency with its recent projection of cultivating 18,000 hectares a year, with approximately of 50,000 employees on board at the end of 2010 which will see raw material production increase to 200,000 metric tonnes annually The sugar cane farm is a backward integration supplying raw material to the sugar refinery, and the sugar refinery in itself is also a backward integration. This is because it supplies Dangote beverages (Dansa Food Ltd) with sugar. The company has two categories of customers Super industrial users who are largely blue chip Nigerian companies which account for about 18 per cent of its sales revenue. These include Nestle Nigeria Plc, Cadbury Nigeria Plc, Seven-Up Bottling Company Plc and Nigerian Bottling Company Plc (NBC). The other group is the distributors who service the retail end of the market (i.e. household and micro industrial users). This group trades in wholesale white sugar and are responsible for near 82 per cent of Dangote Sugars sales revenue. Dangote Sugar Plc also enjoys the services of Dangote Transport (DanTrans) for movement of its raw materials and finished goods, this phase of vertical integration touches both forward and backward integration. Some of the benefit s of integration enjoyed by the Dangote Sugar Plc are listed below Growing Sugar has substantially given Dangote Sugar Plc more control over the source of its raw materials, thereby reducing its reliance on importation. Sugar farming has also reduced the general cost of production, this is because internally sourcing for raw materials does not match the cost of purchasing them from suppliers whose choice of profit can affect the company negatively and it does not attract extra charges that come with importation of raw materials. By adopting the services provided by DanTrans, there is better coordination of company activities and also a reduction in the cost of transportation. Dangote Flour Mills Plc Dangote Flour Mills Plc comprises of 3 factories located in Lagos, Kano and Kwara State with a combined production output of 2.7 million metric tonnes a year. The company imports wheat from the US and some of its products are semolina and flour. Dangote Group has two companies that are heavily dependent on the flour mills company, they are the Dangote Pasta Limited and Dangote Noodles Limited. These two companies rely on the flour mills for raw materials; the form of production adopted here is vertical integration which sees the both companies source for its raw materials from within. Dangote Pasta Limited and Dangote Noodles Limited also share various benefits mentioned earlier about other companies which are Lower cost of acquiring raw materials Better coordination of company activities Dangote Agro Sacks Limited A variety of Dangote Products like cement, salt, flour and sugar needs to be packaged before they are distributed, because of the large volume of sacks that will be needed for this purpose, Dangote Group introduced Dangote Agro Sacks Limited. The company produces polypropylene bags primarily for internal use, and is able to produce 500 million 50kg sacks a year. Agro sacks are able to meet the total packaging demand of Dangote Group. By vertically integrating the activities of Dangote Group, it saves the company millions of naira. Dangote Transportation Limited (DanTrans) With a total of 5,000 trucks, DanTrans is able to meet the transportation needs of Dangote group. These activities range from the transportation of bulk cement from terminals, distribution of finished goods like noodle, cement, beverages, sugar, salt and many others; and also the movement of raw materials to factories for processing. Movement of raw materials to factories are not a close to sale activity, therefore it is regarded as backward integration The distributions of finished goods are downstream activities referred to as forward integration, both are forms of vertical integration. Disadvantages The application of the various integration methods in company activities are not without their shortcomings. Trust Issues: The merger was put on hold for several years as properties of Benue Cement Company were vandalized and set ablaze by protesting workers who saw the merger from a religious and regional perspective. Judging that the Chief Executive of Dangote Group, Aliko Dangote is a muslim from the northern part of Nigeria and Benue Cement Company is located in Benue State, with a predominantly Christian population in the Central part of Nigeria. A repeat of such an act will have a negative effect on the companys profit and growth forecast. Emergence of monopoly: The merger of Dangote Cement which is an already sound company with Benue Cement Company will put rival companies at risk of losing their share of the market. This is because competing companies will be restricted by their size, technology and borrowing power, this can lead to the emergence of a monopoly. Vertical Integration is Limited: Though Dangote Group has gained so much control of related inter-company activities, it is still dependant on other companies for materials, an example is Doy Packs Limited which packages Dansa Products. Sustenance: The introduction of new activities poses the question as to whether these companies can be sustained. The larger a company is, the more complex it is to manage. With particular reference to Dangote Flour Mills which also sells flour to consumers through middlemen. In trying to compete with other flour products which have established themselves in the market, Dangote Flour Mills give out goods on credit to middlemen with the hope that when the goods are sold, the middlemen will hold on to their profits and pay for the purchase. This is not the case because many middlemen refuse to pay up even after the goods have been sold, a recent attempt to involve the police in debt recovery has seen middlemen threaten to shift to rival products. Little or no competition: Some companies like Dangote Agro Sacks, which manufactures company sacks and DanTrans, which transports finished goods and raw materials primarily exist to satisfy company needs, as such these companies are less efficient in the areas of innovation and management as a result of the lack of competition. This can be seen in the behaviour of DanTrans truck driver who have continued to give Dangote Group a bad image in the eyes of the public by the manner in which the drive. They have been said to be responsible for accidents that have caused the loss of lives, this has resulted in the burning down of 3 DanTrans Trucks by angry sympathisers along lokoja road, Nigeria this year. Additional Expenses: The merger of the two cement companies will see the companies incur higher expense at Annual General Meetings, Board of Directors and Communication with Shareholders MTN NIGERIA MTN Nigeria is a Telecommunication company which got its license in 2001, it is a part of MTN Group. The company has a heavily rooted presence in Nigeria with an estimated 35 million subscribers and offers a wide range of products and services which include voice communication services, video calling, internet services, street cam service and tracking services. MTN Nigeria has made tremendous investments in Nigeria by rooting telecommunication infrastructure in all 36 states of Nigeria, the transmission has reached over 10,000 villages and over 223 cities. Any company which wishes to succeed aspires to grow, the telecommunication industry has been subject to stiff competition as there are other major players like Glo Nigeria, Etisalat, and Zain Nigeria. In trying to gain competitive advantage in the market, MTN Nigeria horizontally integrated by acquiring VGC Communications for 70 million US Dollars. VGC Communications also provided Telecom services such as fixed line and internet services but it was a relatively smaller company which had a little over 20,000 customers. It is a company that was unheard of in many parts of the country and had only established itself solidly in Lagos state. What used to be known as VGC communications is now known as MTN Hyconnect. MTN Hyconnect now provides broadband internet services and landline services, this is with the aim of tackling the poor internet speed that has plagued the country and also to provide voice services. This act of horizontal integration is targeted at homes, offices, small and me dium enterprises; this acquisition has provided MTN Nigeria with some benefits Cost Savings: Though MTN Nigeria paid $70 million to acquire VGC communications, it has benefited by the already existing structures, the goodwill the company had and also the existing customers. It has been able to save the time and money that would have been needed to start a company from scratch. Economies of Scale: MTN Nigeria has been able to provide similar services to a new range of customers by acquiring VGC Communications. By this geographical expansion it has grown in the number of its customers and the type of services it provides. Competitive Advantage: Once again MTN Nigeria has proven to be a pioneer in the Telecommunication industry as rival companies have continued their competitive onslaught by brings out competing tariff packages and lowering call cost. This brilliant move has seen MTN Nigeria venture into a terrain with lots of opportunities to be exploited. Diversification: By the acquisition MTN Nigeria has ventured into another aspect of telecommunication which is fixed network, this has seen the emergence of a new market with the telecommunication industry. Better access to financing: MTN Hyconnect has grown signifacantly in recent years, tthis is because the company now has access to more funds and has been able to grow ever since, MTN Hyconnect now exists in 3 other places which are Abuja, Port Harcourt, and Ibadan. It has not been a situation of smooth sailing all through, as the following disadvantages have emerged from the acquisition Restricted Growth: MTN Hyconnect is still trying to establish a strong footing, this is because companies like Starcomms provide similar services at relatively lower rates. The continues decline in the general standard of living has also seen homes embrace these services at a slower rate as some will see it as a luxury. Takeover of smaller companies: Acquisition of smaller companies has seen these companies vanish, thereby limiting the choices consumers have and also reduces competition in the industry. Another disadvantage faced by MTN Hyconnect is that, it was a small company at the point of acquisition and has left MTN Nigeria with the giant task of reaching out to the whole country, so far, it exist in 3 states and the federal capital, Abuja. For Hyconnect to succeed, it will require large sums and also a lengthy period of time. Summary Vertical, Horizontal and Conglomerate Integration are different forms of organising production which involves a company gain control of the activities of suppliers and distributors, acquiring or merging with companies that offer similar goods and services, and companies that offer totally different goods and services respectively. Dangote Group is made up of different companies that manufacture cement, salt, sugar, sacks, noodles, flour, beverages and over transport services for company use. It has adopted horizontal integration by merging with Benue Cement Company and has employed vertical integration by producing company sacks, transporting the firms raw materials and finished goods, growing sugar cane for the sugar factory, and sourcing flour for the production of noodles and pasta. With integration, Dangote Group has benefited from economies of scale, saved cost, gain more control of related company activities and has as gained a competitive edge. The application of vertical and horizontal integration has brought forward issues of coordinating larger company activities, incurring additional expense, trust issues, reduced competition in the industry and the fear of an emergence of a monopoly. MTN Nigeria provides telecommunication services ranging from voice communication services, internet services to tracking services. The bid to gain competitive edge has seen the company acquire VGC Communication, a fixed network provider which is now called Hyconnect. The acquisition which has seen MTN Nigeria diversify within the same industry has reaped competitive advantage, growth, cost savings, and the economies of scale that comes with a merger or acquisition. Hyconnect has not fully gain footing because of the activities competing companies and the general standard of living, acquisition has seen smaller companies fade away giving consumers lesser choices. Conclusion Adopting the various forms of organising production has seen the companies grow tremendous, it should also be noted that this has positively affects on the GDP of Nigeria. The fear of the emergence of a monopoly is evident, yet this has further strengthened the positioning of Dangote Group and MTN Nigeria in a very unstable economy.

Dmitri Shostakovich Essay -- Musicians

Dmitri Shostakovich was born in St. Petersburg, Russian on September 25, 1906. He was the second child of Dmitry Boleslavovich and Sof†²ya Vasil†²yevna and he had two siblings. At the age of nine, Shostakovich took a piano lesson and discovered that he was musically gifted. When he was twelve years old, he composed a funeral march to honor Kadet Party leaders that Bolsheviks murdered, in 1918. Shostakovich stared to take classes at the Petrograd Conservatory in 1919. However, he did not do well in most of them, but he did extremely well in the artistic classes. Shostakovich composed â€Å"1st Symphony† and premiered it in 1926. Shostakovich worked as a concert pianist after he graduated to earn some money. He also composed at the same time. At the Warsaw International Piano Competition in 1927, Shostakovich met Bruno Walter, a conductor. He liked Shostakovich’s works and he said that he will conduct Shostakovich’s â€Å"1st Symphony† in Berlin. Shostakovich completed his â€Å"2nd Symphony† in 1927, and he started to work on the music for the opera â€Å"The Nose†. When the opera premiered in 1930, the opera did not do well and received many terrible reviews from the audience. Because of this opera, Shostakovich’s â€Å"3rd Symphony† was not perceived well Shostakovich married his first wife, Nina Varzar, in 1932. In 1935, they were separated when Shostakovich had an affair with Yelena Konstantinovskaya. They were later reunited and the born of their first child strengthen their relationship. Shostakovich worked on the opera â€Å"Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District† while he worked at Leningrad Theatre of Young Workers, known as TRAM in Russian acronym, in the early 1930s. When the opera premiered in 1934, the opera were successful. He was praised â€Å"it co... ... and emotions of the characters, and it created the atmosphere for the films, just like how his â€Å"5th Symphony† was able to captured people’s emotions when they lost many people that they know in mass execution. Works Cited "Classical Net Review - Shostakovich - King Lear." Classical Net. Web. 01 Apr. 2012. . David Fanning and Laurel Fay. "Shostakovich, Dmitry." Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. 1 Apr. 2012. "Dmitry Shostakovich." AllMusic. Web. 01 Apr. 2012. . "Hamlet." IMDb. IMDb.com. Web. 01 Apr. 2012. . "King Lear." IMDb. IMDb.com. Web. 01 Apr. 2012. .

Cartel Theory of Oligopoly Essay

A cartel is defined as a group of firms that gets together to make output and price decisions. The conditions that give rise to an oligopolistic market are also conducive to the formation of a cartel; in particular, cartels tend to arise in markets where there are few firms and each firm has a significant share of the market. In the U.S., cartels are illegal; however, internationally, there are no restrictions on cartel formation. The organization of petroleum-exporting countries (OPEC) is perhaps the best-known example of an international cartel; OPEC members meet regularly to decide how much oil each member of the cartel will be allowed to produce. Oligopolistic firms join a cartel to increase their market power, and members work together to determine jointly the level of output that each member will produce and/or the price that each member will charge. By working together, the cartel members are able to behave like a monopolist. For example, if each firm in an oligopoly sells an undifferentiated product like oil, the demand curve that each firm faces will be horizontal at the market price. If, however, the oil-producing firms form a cartel like OPEC to determine their output and price, they will jointly face a downward-sloping market demand curve, just like a monopolist. In fact, the cartel’s profit-maximizing decision is the same as that of a monopolist, as Figure 1 reveals. The cartel members choose their combined output at the level where their combined marginal revenue equals their combined marginal cost. The cartel price is determined by market demand curve at the level of output chosen by the cartel. The cartel’s profits are equal to the area of the rectangular box labeled abcd in Figure 1 . Note that a cartel, like a monopolist, will choose to produce less output and charge a higher price than would be found in a perfectly competitive market. Once established, cartels are difficult to maintain. The problem is that cartel members will be tempted to cheat on their agreement to limit production. By producing more output than it has agreed to produce, a cartel member can increase its share of the cartel’s profits. Hence, there is a built-in incentive for each cartel member to cheat. Of course, if all members cheated, the cartel would cease to earn monopoly profits, and there would no longer be any incentive for firms to remain in the cartel. The cheating problem has plagued the OPEC cartel as well as other cartels and perhaps explains why so few cartels exist.

Magazine Advertisment Essay

Advertisements are everywhere on TV, the internet, movies, magazines, etc. They are there to get people to buy whatever it is that they are advertising. They do it with color, models, and tricky words. In this case my magazine advertised a lip balm called â€Å"Baby Lips†. This advertisement says that you can, â€Å"kiss dull lip balms goodbye and instead have baby lips† making it so that woman get interested into buying this product because you will have baby lips. The colors that are being used in my advertisement are grey, black, bright orange, and white. What is being suggested in this advertisement is that you should wear the lip balm shown in the magazine because it will give you baby lips. In the article the picture is of a pretty woman whose whole face is grey, except her lips. The rest of the article is in very light colors making it so that the lip balm and the models lips are the two things stand out the most. Both of them are in a bright orange color that makes them stand out more than anything else in the picture. Also in my advertisement there is a model, she is a female, although you can’t see all her body and just her face you can tell that she is pretty just by the way her eyelashes and eyebrows are done. The expression on her face is as if the woman is going to give someone a kiss. She has her eyes closed but she looks like if she’s in the mood of kissing someone and feels good about that. All these little details are made to imply that with this lip balm everyone will want to get kissed by your baby lips. In the picture there is also a before and after picture of someone’s lips but you can’t really tell the difference. Words are a big help in advertising. The words call the reader’s attention and also can sometimes fool the buyer. In my ad it says â€Å"In one week your lips will be visibly renewed.† Although it says that, there is no given proof of it. They don’t provide us with a survey of people or percentage of people who says that. Also the word baby lip is in bright orange to get the viewers attention because it stands out who wouldn’t want baby lips right? There is also a small caption next to the bright orange lip balm that says that it’s an exclusive lip renew formula. Furthermore the model is saying that she wants a clinical strength care with a kick of color to get woman to buy it because not only does it help you care for your lips but it also gives you some color. The intended audience for the lip balm is young woman or any type of woman who want to get baby looking lips and wants to stand out at the same time. The woman who are interested in this lip balm are probably the ones who are looking for non dull lips and instead interested in lips that are more moisturized and lips that stand out. Lastly, advertising helps buyers learn more about the product but it also tricks buyers into buying stuff that most of the time doesn’t work.

People Of Gilded Age Essays - Philip Sheridan, Gilded Age

People Of Gilded Age Essays - Philip Sheridan, Gilded Age People Of Gilded Age After the Civil War had ended, several soldiers had returned home to find their places of living destroyed. Most of these people returned to practically nothing. The United States had to rebuild itself, and this rebuilding was called Reconstruction. Today historians refer to this era of reconstruction as the part of the Gilded Age. Many people had to pickup and start all over again, while others continued their quests of expanding. Expanding by taking control over the land or by expanding their beliefs, either way lives of these people reflected the social tensions of the Gilded Age. Philip H. Sheridan, who was one of the heroes of the Civil War, was a soldier who had started his career on the frontier and would return there after the war to help the United States in expanding its territory by having to combat many Native Americans in doing so. Sheridan was an extremely important person who helped conquer the frontier. Sheridan believed in the freeing of black slaves, and decided that he would help protect the blacks now that they were free. He expresses his opinion about what is done to black people in Texas by commenting that the black codes are a policy of gross injustice toward the colored people on the part of the courts, and a reign of lawlessness and disorder ensued.(10) Sheridans defense of the black cause much tension in his life, in Texas, that he was later reassigned to command the Department of the Missouri. (11) In 1869 when Grant had became President; he appointed Sheridan lieutenant governor and command of the Division of Missouri. Sheridans past o n tactics for attacking the Indians made him the best man for the job in defending the western frontier. Much of Sheridans life involved being enrolled in the army and defending the frontier. He is also known for the quote The only good Indian is a dead Indian, which he became synonymous with. (13) Sheridans life practically evolved around the Indian warfare and the tensions that surrounded it. His ethics and tactics of Indian warfare were often questioned, leaving him to defend himself against his critics quite often. Another lifestyle that had taken on the challenges of living a successful life was that of being a doctor. Susan LaFleshe Picotte was one of these doctors; but for Susan to be a successful doctor, she had to overcome many more obstacles than other people did. As you see, becoming a doctor is one difficult task at hand, but being a woman who was Indian was another. Susan was a Siouan-speaking Omaha, who had migrated to Nebraska because of the Indian Removal Act of 1830. (24) Susans life was different than the rest of the people in her tribe; she was one of the firsts not to have any piercing or any tattoos as Indians did back then. One other unique characteristic of Susan was that she wanted to continue her education to eventually become a physician. So on October 12, 1850 Susan was accepted to the Womans Medical College of Pennsylvania. (26) She finished her schooling and soon became the physician of her old reservation. Susan did anything she could to help her patients, including go ing house to house from sunrise to sunset providing care for her patients. Susan was up to her knees in patients and was taking care of all of the 1,244 tribal members on the reservation. (28) She was an extremely hard working woman of this age. Susan had to deal with other problems other than medicinal purposes. She had to deal with the fact that her tribe was constrained to its reservation. Susan also had to overcome the tensions at home and on the reservation with liquor, for she believed that it was one of the leading causes of death even before her husband succumbed to the effects. (32) Susan became politically involved and helped her tribe as much as possible, it must had been very difficult for someone of her stature to be looked at differently for her race and not for who she was. Sarah Christie Stevens was another woman who had to overcome adversity and survive in a mans world. Sarah was a

Pmp in Manufacturing Essay Example

Pmp in Manufacturing Essay Example Pmp in Manufacturing Essay Pmp in Manufacturing Essay Executive Summary: This organisation manufactures and sells building automation, fire, and security system to existing customer and run the business through project concept. The company has being using the contract document to execute project without the proper use of project management plan or framework. In this scenario the contract document is prepare comprehensively with a scope, time and cost and this report is structure to critically analysis the project management plan and areas where the organisation can incorporate project management plan into the life cycle of its project. The nature of this project is a project venture where it fit the definition of a project the mapping of five processes and the nine knowledge areas during the duration of its life cycle. It also analyse the role of project manager that required to be all rounder (familiar with general management of business) in fulfil its stakeholders objectives. The organisation do not have a project management plan hence the discussion of this plan is concentrated to the best practice methodology how the project management is develop and where and what information is required for the development of project management plan base on the complexity of the project. The input, techniques and tool, and output methodology of project management institute (PMI), 2004, project management book of knowledge (PMBOK) is use in this discussion to discuss the development of project management plan. Audience of the project management plan is also critically being discuss to illustrate who is the audience, why this audience, what do the audience want from project management plan, how do they use the project management plan and how this project management plan is being presented and structured. Project management plan with the following knowledge areas of integration, scope, cost, time, quality, human resources, risk, and procurement and other model such as PRINCE 2 and Chapman’s is also briefly discussed with comparison to PMBOK. The project management plan is a collection of information of its subsidiary plan and components. This subsidiary information is an input of the project management plan development and this input consist of four major segments. The preliminary statements define what need to be accomplished at the boundaries of the scope of the project followed by the project management process discussing all the nine areas of PMBOK of integration management, scope management, time management, cost management, quality management, human resources, communication management, risk management, and procurement management. The other two major segments of the input process of project management plan, address the enterprise environment factors and organisation process assets that surround and influence the success of the project. In the second categories of project plan development are the tools and techniques in collecting, monitoring, and controlling the four major input process of project management plan. These tools are the project management methodology, information system and expert judgement of the organisation assets and environmental. In conclusion and recommendation, this report discusses the benefits of the project management plan and the areas where the organisation can adapt and use project management plan in its executed project. Table of Contents : Executive Summary:vii Table of Contents:ix List of Figures and Tables:x 1. Introductions1 2. Background of project3 3. 1. Nature of venture4 3. 2. Nature and purpose of the chosen project management plan10 3. 3. Audience of project management plan14 3. 4. Structure of the project plan16 4. Contents of the Project Plan Sections18 4. . Develop inputs of PM Plan19 4. 1. 1Preliminary Project Scope Management19 4. 1. 2Project Management Processes20 4. 1. 2. 1Project Scope Management20 4. 1. 2. 2Project Time Management21 4. 1. 2. 3Project Cost Management22 4. 1. 2. 4Project Quality Management23 4. 1. 2. 5Project Human Resource Management23 4. 1. 2. 6Project Communications Management23 4. 1. 2. 7Project Risk Management24 4. 1. 2. 8Project Procurement Management24 4. 1. 3 Enterprise Environment Factors24 4. 1. 4Organizational Process Assets24 4. 2. Tools and Technique of PM Plan25 4. 2. Project Management Methodology25 4. 2. 2Project Management Information System25 4. 2. 3Expert Judgment25 4. 3. Output of a PM Plan25 5. Conclusions26 6. Recommendations27 Appendix 1: Subcontract agreement between customer and organisation (No PM Plan)28 Appendix 2: Assignment 1 of MGT802229 Appendix 3: How PRINCE 2 can compliment PMBOK and your PMP30 Appendix 4: A comparison of PRINCE 2 against PMBOK31 Appendix 5: PRINCE 2 Process Model32 List of References33 List of Figures and Tables: Figure 3. 1. 1: The five phases and 25 action steps of project management life cycle5 Figure 3. . 2: The project leaders direction finder6 Figure 3. 1. 3: Mapping of project management process to the project management process groups and knowledge areas7 Figure 3. 1. 4: Areas of expertise needed by the project team8 Figure 3. 1. 5: The project stakeholders8 Figure 3. 2. 1: Three major project documents and their relationship to their components10 Figure 3. 2. 2: Complexity-uncertainty relationships in projects12 Figure 3. 2. 3: Develop PM Plan Input, Tools Techniques and Outputs13 Table 3. 3. 1: Audience of PM Plan15 Table 3. 4. : PM Plan structures and its components17 Figure 4. 1: Develop PM Plan with its input, tools and technique and output process. 19 Figure 4. 2 : WBS sample structure21 Figure 4. 3 : Network Diagram21 1. Introductions As a supplier of building automation (BAS), fire security system (FAS) the organisation tenders and bids BAS and FAS system from retrofitting market (existing building for more than ten years). Upon winning the bid, an agreement between organisation and customer is sign. These contract document and this report is prepared for two purposes. Customer the sponsor, (Gardiner, 2005, p. 115) prepares the document to establishing requirements for the project in terms of project scope, time, cost, quality, and risk. It also serves a s an â€Å"offer and acceptance† (Vermeessch Lindgren, 2005, p. 93) document between organisation and the customer. This report is prepared to critically analysis the neglected process in preparing Project Management Plan (PM Plan) during the life cycle of the project. The structure of the contract document is prepared in the form of subcontract agreement between the organisation and customer. This document covers four parts and there are, 1. The summary of the contract document summarising the major points of the contract document into a single page. 2. Part A establish general terms of conditions which are further, subdivide into definition of contract, compensation, subcontract period, payment terms and milestone, performance bond, warranty and warranty period, liabilities, risk mitigation, communication and health, safety and environmental (HSE). 3. ‘Part B’ refers to scope of works and 4. Part C’ refers to compensation. Structure of this report is prepared base on the following, Introduction of the project review the reason of preparing the document and a brief summary of the contents. Background of project provide details of the project, reason, and context of the analysis. The nature of the venture discuss why this is a project, how does this affect the management. The audience of project management plan discusses who are the recipients, wh y they need it, what is required, and what way do they need it. Structure of the project plan discusses the flow of the PM Plan and follows with conclusion and recommendation. 2. Background of project This project is award to the organisation from existing customer located at the heart of Kuala Lumpur. The customer uses the organisation product and services in three of its building located at the same location a year ago. Recently when the building owner has a need to expand the existing security access system on one of the building in level two, the owner has specifically request the organisation and the project manger to quote and design for this need. This request is done due to the organisation familiarity with the site conditions, existing design of the security access system, expendability of the existing system, platform of the technology and the reliability of the services offered during the earlier phase of the project. Customer who also familiar on project contracting has presented the contract document in a structure that the contract document covers project scope, project period, project costing, project bill of quantity, project quality, and project risk. Each elements presented does fit the definition of a project. (Kerzner, 2003, p. ) Generally the development of PM Plan (PMI, 2004, p. 70) is required at this period but due to familiarity of running a project in the same nature and capacity, the project manager has not develop PM plan. This project is executed without a formal PM Plan (PMI, 2004, p. 70) through all its life cycle (Gardiner, 2005, p. 27) and the job is executed base on experience, procedures, and proces s previously establish by the organisation. This project is being monitor and control base on the establish process in terms of collection, billing, certification of jobs done, unbilled revenue and margin of the project. . 1. Nature of venture Base on various view of project definition that explains the terms project as per appendix 2, the venture has a nature of a project due to its unique, temporary, and progressive elaboration. (PMI, 2004, p. 5-6) Summing from appendix 2, project definition can be consider as ‘a temporary undertaking that contains a series of inter-related activities that are to be completed within a specific time, a specific budget and meeting specific performance levels’ (Faisal A. 2006, p. 6). In this context, the project has the following criteria of temporary where the project period is from 14 April 2009 to 13 April 2010. It has inter related activities where the project manager will required to incorporate the five process and nine knowledge a rea at specific time, budget and performance in delivering the project as per the contract document even though there is no formal development of the PM Plan. In project management, the PMI define it ‘as application of knowledge, skill, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements. Project management is accomplished through the application and integration of the project management process of initiating, planning, executing, monitoring and controlling and closing. ’ (PMI, 2004, p. 8) Reviewed in introduction, project background, and appendix 1, project management technique is a requirement for this organisation. Today the organisation did not practise formal project management technique (PM plan s not develop, information of the project is all over the place, from sales department, technical department, finance department, procurement department and project department) and this could be due to the culture or the way the project has being run. (Further elaboration in section 3. 2) Project management technique has the legitimate use in managing project due to the following: Project nature that requires continuous monitoring, review and updating during its project life cycle as illustrated in figure 3. 1. 1. Figure 3. 1. 1: The five phases and 25 action steps of project management life cycle Adapted from: USQ, 2009, p. 1. 16, Hamilton 1997) ‘Project manager require to expand the scope of his/her vision as indicated’ (USQ, 2009, p. 10. 22) in figure 3. 1. 2. Project manager need to manage its sponsor (customer), it also need to monitor and control the progress of the project and answer to its stakeholders. Project manager need to manage the human resources of the team members, external stakeholders such as the supplier, vendors and end user (user of the system) and all activities that have relationship to the project. Figure 3. 1. : The project leaders direction finder (Adapted from: USQ, 2009, p. 10. 23, Briner et al. 1996, p. 17) Project manager involve five-process grouping of define, planning, executing, monitoring, controlling, and closing (PMI, 2004, p. 70). It a lso involve nine knowledge area of project management integration, project scope management, project time management, project cost management, project quality management, project human resource management, project communication management, project risk management and project procurement management as illustrated figure 3. . 3. ‘Project management integration has been defined by the AIPM (1996) as, the management of overall project scope in the context of schedule, budget, risk and contracts towards establishing agreed for supplier/client requirements. Integration involves the management of the other eight functions of project management, and making trade-offs among competing objectives and alternatives in order to meet or exceed project objectives throughout the project life cycle, taking into consideration the often conflicting influences of internal and external environment’. USQ, 2009, p. 10. 18) Figure 3. 1. 3: Mapping of project management process to the project ma nagement process groups and knowledge areas (Adapted from: USQ, 2009, p. 1. 3, PMI 2004, Table 3-45) Project manager need to know the project management book of knowledge, project manager also need to know the general management of business in application areas knowledge, standard and regulation, understanding of project environment, and interpersonal skill as per figures 3. 1. 4. Figure 3. 1. 4: Areas of expertise needed by the project team Source: USQ, 2009, p. 11, PMI 2004, figure 1-2, p. 13) Project manager is surrounded by stakeholders (see figure 3. 1. 5) and hence the project manager would required this technique into managing his/her project . Figure 3. 1. 5: The project stakeholders (Source: USQ, 2009, p. 1. 22, Cleland, 1999, p. 167) Hence, the use of this management technique does provide beneficial to this project and is a ‘critical success factors’ (Gardiner Stewart, 2000, p. 201) and legitimate requirement for project managers. In this project, the only documentation use is a contract document and loose-files document from other functional units established at different time of the life cycle of the project. This contract document can only represent a project charter document and basic information of preliminary project scope statement where forty-two others areas of process and knowledge is not formally covered and documented or updated and recorder at one location. 3. 2. Nature and purpose of the chosen project management plan Appendix 1 is the document available for this project and this is the way the organisation has being executing project, as discuss earlier there is no other document created such as PM Plan in this project or any other project executed by the organisation. Contract document have some criteria of the components of project charter and project scope statement but did not encompass PM Plan. Figure 3. 2. 1 illustrate areas where and what document is available under the relationship of PM Plan. Figure 3. 2. 1: Three major project documents and their relationship to their components Adapted from: PMI, 2004, p. 75) The organisation do not have PM plan, because project manager normally do not just manage project. They also perform technical roles and probably due to their lake of experience as project manager, where majority of them are promoted from engineers and have limited specific training on project management. (Thornberry, 1987, p. 60) In some circumstances, the culture difficulty has prevented the use of project management techniques effectively compare to the western culture where the root of project management is from the western. Wang Liu, 2007, p. 61) As define in PMI 2004, PM Plan is a plan and documents generated by various process and those items are the subsidiary plan and components of PM Plan. PM Plan is a major document in a project and developing this document is a ‘critical success factors’. (Gardiner et al. , 2000, p. 201) It acts as a primary source of information of how the project goes through all the five projects management process in initiating, planning, executing, monitoring, controls, and closing of project. In USQ study book define PM Plan it ‘a critical document as it brings together all of the relevant information in one place, at a point in time’. (USQ, 2009, p. 10. 24) ‘The plan often has multiple purpose including gaining sponsor signoff in many cases, it provide other key stakeholders (financiers, champions, steering committee members and project team members) with the essential information needed to fully understand the scope of the project, the risk, the schedule, the budget, etc and how it will be achieved’. (USQ, 2009, p. 10. 24) In this project, the developing of PM Plan is not available and this project runs base on loose subsidiary plan such as schedule generated for the purpose customer request, project costing for the purpose budgeting and tendering, project appraisal for the purpose of profit and margin. When it come to gaining sponsor signoff , providing stakeholders information, needs to understand the scope of project, risk, schedule, budget, it has being difficult and time consuming in accessing these information due to limited, no availability of information in one location. As for the purpose the ‘PM Plan it act as a guide for implementing the project and documents assumptions and decisions regarding communication, management processes, execution, and overall project control. The ultimate purpose of the PM Plan, is to clearly define the roles, responsibilities, procedures, and processes that will result in the project being managed such that it is completed according to the baseline objectives and goals’ (U. S. Department of Transport Federal Highway Administration, 2009) The PM Plan address all phases of the major project life cycle, and ensures that the project will be manages holistically and as a continuum, not incrementally as the project progresses. It is essential that the PM Plan establish the metrics by which the success of the project is define’. (U. S. Department of Transport Federal Highway Administration, 2009) PM Plan can vary depending on the type and complexity of a project. The type and complexity of a project is as per figure 3. 2. 2 and the discuss project alls under the categories of engineering construction. Figure 3. 2. 2: Complexity-uncertainty relationships in projects (Adapted from: PMI, 2004, p. 9, Hamilton 1997, p. 68) If an audit is call on this project, many uncertainties and questions on the project are at risk and hence this put major risk to the project in terms of its set objectives and deliverables. Currently this project is not at the readiness stage and hence with this, immediate need in develop PM Plan is required. Figure 3. 2. , below are the input, tools, techniques, and output in developing the PM Plan and develop output of PM Plan will than incorporate as inputs of project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resource, communication, risk and project procurement management. Once the PM Plan is develop for this project, knowledge area at every phase of the process is plan and documented and this will be the primary source of information for the project team to r efer, monitor and control against their current progress goals and objectives. Figure 3. 2. 3: Develop PM Plan Input, Tools Techniques and Outputs (Source: PMI, 2004, p. 89) 3. 3. Audience of project management plan This organisation has no formal PM Plan. Main document use is the contract document and the subsidiary documents scatted around. The Project manager and its project team will use these contract document and subsidiary document to implement the project. Here is the table 3. 3. 1 to explain who use what information if a proper PM Plan is available. Base on the theory PMI 2004, ‘PM Plan is critical document that have multiple purpose including updating and providing stakeholders with essential information needed to fully understand the scope of the project, the risk, the schedule, the budget and how it will be achieved. ’ (USQ, 2009, p. 10. 24) Other theory such as ‘PRINCE 2 (PRojects IN Controlled Environments) is the de facto standard in the UK. It was developed for and is used extensively by the UK government, and is widely used in the private sector, in the UK and internationally. PRINCE2 components and processes are consistent with the PMBOK, but PRINCE2 does not include all the knowledge areas and details specified in the PMBOK. PRINCE2 focuses on critical areas, so a project manager still needs to draw on the full depth and range of the PMBOK and other sources to complete project management work. The intention of PRINCE2 is to organize and supplement project management knowledge. It assumes that those learning and working with this methodology have a level of experience that enables them to fill in the details that PRINCE2 omits. (Siegelaub, 2004, p. 1) Refer also to appendix 3 on how PRINCE 2 can complement PMBOK, appendix 4 for comparison between PRINCE 2 and PMBOK and appendix 5 for the PRINCE 2 model and these are sources downloaded from , viewed 21 May 2009. Table 3. 3. 1: Audience of PM Plan Audiences (Who)Why this audiencesWhat do they need to knowHow will they use the planWhat info needs to be providedHow should that info be providedIn what sequence Sponsor CustomerSponsor of the projectAll the nine knowledge areasIn all of the five process groupSelective knowledge and process group areas. In project mgmt planAs per PMI, 2004 project mgmt process, p70 Internal Stakeholders General managersInternal sponsor of the projectAll the nine knowledge areasIn all of the five process groupAll knowledge and process group areas. In project mgmt planAs per PMI, 2004 project mgmt process, p70 Functional managerse. g. Finance Manager need to report the project as statutory requirementKnowledge directly link to their functions. e. g. Finance – cost mgmtIn four of the process group of planning, executing, monitor control and closureSelective knowledge and process group areas. In project mgmt planAs per PMI, 2004 project mgmt process, p70 Project teamsTo plan, execute, monitor control and closure of projectKnowledge areas directly link to their work packagesIn selective process group related to their work packageSelective knowledge and process group areas. In project mgmt planAs per PMI, 2004 project mgmt process, p70 Project managerTo define, plan, execute, monitoring control and closure of projectAll the nine knowledge areasIn all of the five process groupAll knowledge and process group areas. In project mgmt planAs per PMI, 2004 project mgmt process, p70 AdministratorsTo support the projectKnowledge areas directly link to their work packagesSelective process group related to their work packageSelective knowledge and process group areas. In project mgmt planAs per PMI, 2004 project mgmt process, p70 External Stakeholders Customer-usersTo use the productsScope, Cost, Time, Quality mgmtInitiating and closure process groupSelective knowledge and process group areas. In project mgmt planAs per PMI, 2004 project mgmt process, p70 Supplier/ContractorsTo supply and install this product according to set goals and objectives. Knowledge areas directly link to their work packagesSelective process group related to their work packageSelective knowledge and process group areas. In project mgmt planAs per PMI, 2004 project mgmt process, p70 3. 4. Structure of the project plan Structure of the document used by the project manager in this project is not near or close to a PM Plan. As discuss there is no development or formal PM Plan use by the project manager. The information uses to execute the project are from the contract document and some scatted document. Attach are the table 3. 4. to explain what is used base on the comparison of a PM Plan formats. In summary the organisation do not have an PM Plan and the way it execute it project is based on experience and scatter document during the proposal stage, develop for the purpose of budgeting. The only ‘strong’ document is a charter and scoping document establish from the contract document. Other component such as scope, time and cost has being incl uded are document made available during initiating state when performing budgetary activities. Components such as human resource, procurement, quality, and risk are tandard process document from the organisation. Table 3. 4. 1: PM Plan structures and its components PMBOKPRINCE2Chapman’sThis OrganisationWhy this component is includedIssues with the organisation information Project CharterXXXXAs a contract Using contract document as project charter Project Scope StatementXXXXAs a contract Using contract document as scope management Project Integration ManagementXXXOONo development of this document Project Scope ManagementXXXXAvailable during proposal stage for budget purposeDone during define phase. No further updates in planning, execution, monitoring control and closure. Project Cost ManagementXXXXAvailable during proposal stage for budget purposeDone during define phase. No further updates in planning, execution, monitoring control and closure. Project Time ManagementXXXXAvailable during proposal stage for budget purposeDone during define phase. No further updates in planning, execution, monitoring control and closure. Project Quality ManagementXXXXEstablish process in the organisationNo updates in defining, planning, execution, monitoring control and closure. Project Human Resource ManagementXXXXEstablish organisation structure as project running company. No updates in defining, planning, execution, monitoring control and closure. Project Communication ManagementXXXOONo development of this document Project Risk ManagementXXXXEstablish process in the organisationNo updates in defining, planning, execution, monitoring control and closure. Project Procurement ManagementXOXXEstablish process in the organisationNo updates in defining, planning, execution, monitoring control and closure. Multi-project OversightOOXOONo development of this document Legend: XPractice/Available ONot Practice/Not Available 4. Contents of the Project Plan Sections This organisation has no PM Plan and due to the critical success factors for a project, PM Plan development is required. Here we will discuss each major section of the project plan and some theoretical framework of what is included. PM Plan is a living document that ‘brings together all of the relevant information in one place, at a point of time’. (USQ, 2009, p. 10. 24) Define in PMI 2004, development of PM Plan ‘process includes action necessary to define, integrate, and coordinate all subsidiary plans into a PM Plan. This process result in a PM Plan that is updated and revised through the Integrated Change Control process. PM Plan defines how project is executed, monitored and controlled, and closed. The PM Plan documents the collection of outputs of the planning process of the Planning Process Group’. (PMI, 2004, p. 88) ‘The PM Plan can be either summary level or detailed, and can be composed of one or more subsidiary plans and other components. Each of the subsidiary plans and components is as detail to the extent required by the specific project. ’ (PMI, 2004, p. 87-9) Development of PM Plan can further be summarise per the figure 4. 1 and further discussion on each of the major component is elaborate below. Figure 4. 1: Develop PM Plan with its input, tools and technique and output process. (Adapted from: PMI, 2004, p. 77-90) 4. 1. Develop inputs of PM Plan Inputs of PM Plan consist of four majors components and they are, 4. 1. 1Preliminary Project Scope Management ‘Defines what needs to be accomplished. The develop preliminary project scope statement process addresses and documents the characteristics and boundaries of the project and its associated products and services, as well s the methods of acceptance and scope control. ’ (PMI, 2004, p. 86) ‘This will contain, among other things, a record of the project objectives and project deliverables and an outline of the costs, timing and specifications of the work to be done. ’ (Lake, 1997, p. 104) Project manager gathers this information from contract document in appendix 1 for the project stakeholders as explain in section 3. 3. 4. 1. 2Project Management Processes All nine knowledge areas of PMI 2004, PMBOK ® Guide. These areas includes the integration management and the following, 4. 1. 2. 1Project Scope Management Includes the processes required to ensure that the project includes all the work required, to complete the project successfully. Project scope management is primarily concerned with defining and controlling what is and is not included in the project. ’ (PMI, 2004, p. 103) ‘WBS is a method of breaking down a project into individual elements which can be scheduled and costed. WBS is a method of splitting a project up into small parts for which you can predict the resource requirements and which you can build into a schedule. The first step in constructing a WBS is to identify the main stages of the project. These may correspond to the phases in the project life cycle:’ (Lake, 1997, p. 72-3) ‘once the main stages of the project have been established, the second step in developing a WBS is to divide each stage into smaller elements. Some project managers insist that each element should relate specifically to a particular project deliverable. This approach has significant advantages, because it focuses attention on the agreed scope of the project and ensures that resources are not waste on anything, which lies outside it. It is also much easier to check that each stage in the project has actually finished. (Lake, 1997, p. 73-4) This can further illustrate in figure 4. 2. Figure 4. 2 : WBS sample structure (Adapted from: PMI, 2004, p. 114) 4. 1. 2. 2Project Time Management ‘Includes the process required to accomplish timely completion of the project. ’ (PMI, 2004, p. 123) ‘A network is a diagram, which shows the dependencies between the activities in a projec t. It is use to schedule these activities and plan the optimum use of resources. ’ (Lake, 1997, p. 80) Here is example of a network diagram as per figure 4. 3 Figure 4. 3 : Network Diagram (Source: Taylor, 2009) In time management, monitoring the time of completion base on jobs done is meaningless. Instead, a more reliable ways to monitor jobs completion is through the numbers percentage jobs should be done. e. g. ‘If it is going to take 20 person days and 12 person days are already gone, it means that 60% of work should be done’. (Dash, 2009) another way is the Earned Value Measurement (EVM) technique. ‘To know the status of the project, just a couple of question needs to be asked: 1. What is the SPI (Schedule Performance Index) for the project? 2. What is the CPI (Cost Performance Index) for the project? If SPI and CPI are below 1. 0, then the project is not in good health, i. e. , not performing well. Also from a schedule perspective, if the SPI is below 1. 0 (let us assume it is 0. 9), then it means the deliverable is actually 90% complete and it is behind schedule. ’ (Dash, 2009) 4. 1. 2. 3Project Cost Management Includes the processes involved in planning, estimating, budgeting, and controlling costs so that the project can be completed within the approved budget. ’ (PMI, 2004, p. 157) ‘Microsoft Project help describes Earned Value analysis as â€Å"a method for measuring project performance. It indicates how much of the budget should have been spent in relation to the amount of work done so far and the baseline costs for the tasks, assignments, or resources. At the root of Earned Value analysis are three key values:’ (Almeida, 2009) 4. 1. 2. 3. 1. ‘The budgeted cost of individual tasks as they are scheduled in the project plan based on the costs of resources assigned to those tasks plus any fixed costs associated with the tasks. This is the budgeted cost of work scheduled (BCWS). BCWS is the baseline cost up to the status date you choose. Budgeted cost values are stored in the baseline fields, or, if you have saved multiple baselines, in Baseline1 through Baseline10 fields. ’ (Almeida, 2009) 4. 1. 2. 3. 2. ‘The actual cost required to complete all or some portion of the tasks up to the status date. This is the actual cost of work performed (ACWP). Normally, Microsoft Project correlates actual costs with actual work. Only if you enter actual costs independent of actual work or change resource pay rates will the actual cost be out of step with the scheduled cost. ’ (Almeida, 2009) 4. 1. 2. 3. 3. The value of the work performed by the status date measured in currency. This is literally the value earned by the work performed, and is called the budgeted cost of work performed (BCWP). This value is calculated for each individual task, but is analysed at an aggregate level (typically at the project level). ’ (Almeida, 2009) ‘Earned Value analysis is always specific to a status date you choose . This may be the current date or any date before the current date. Microsoft Project gives us out-of-the-box AC, PV, EV, CV, SV, SPI, and CPI, among others. However, the key to using Earned Value is the way we interpret the values. So when EV0 and PV=0 what should be the result of SPI? For anomalous situations, SPI calculated by Microsoft Project is always 0. This will make the analysis of eventual insertion errors difficult. If PV EV 0 and PV = Task Baseline Cost (this means that the task in the initial plan should be finished but due to a delay is still progressing), what should be the result of SPI? For Microsoft Project, it is EV / PV, but in this case we have a task that is recovering and PV will stay constant with an increasing EV, so SPI is going to improve until the task is finished. This will present us with some misinterpretations since at this time it is better to have SPI with a value that enables us to identify recovering tasks. ’ (Almeida, 2009) 4. 1. 2. 4Project Quality Management ‘Pocesses include all the activities of the performing organization that determine quality policies, objectives, and responsibilities so that the project will satisfy the needs for which it was undertaken. It implements the quality management system through the policy, procedures, and processes of quality planning, quality assurance, and quality control, with continuous process improvement activities conducted throughout, as appropriate. (PMI, 2004, p. 179) ISO10006:2003 guideline to quality management in project ( bia. ca/articles/pj-combining-iso-10006-pmbok-to-ensure-successful-projects. htm, 2009) can be applied in this project. 4. 1. 2. 5Project Human Resource Management ‘Includes the processes that organize and manage the project team. The project team is comprised of the people who have assigned roles and responsibilities for completing the project. ’ (PMI, 2004, p. 199) 4. 1. 2. 6Project Communications Management As define in PMI, 2004, p. 221. Is the knowledge area that employs the processes required to ensure timely and appropriate generation, collection, distribution, storage, retrieval, and ultimate disposition of project information. The Project Communications Management processes provide the critical links among people and information that are necessary for successful communications. 4. 1. 2. 7Project Risk Management As define in PMI, 2004, p. 237. Includes the processes concerned with conducting risk management planning, identification, analysis, responses, and monitoring and control on a project; most of these processes are updated throughout the project. The objectives of Project Risk Management are to increase the probability and impact of positive events, and decrease the probability and impact of events adverse to the project. 4. 1. 2. 8Project Procurement Management As define in PMI, 2004, p. 269. Includes the processes to purchase or acquire the products, services, or results needed from outside the project team to perform the work. Project Procurement Management includes the contract management and change control processes required to administer contracts or purchase orders issued by authorized project team members. Project Procurement Management also includes administering any contract issued by an outside organization (the buyer) that is acquiring the project from the performing organization (the seller), and administering contractual obligations placed on the project team by the contract. 4. 1. 3Enterprise Environment Factors ‘Defines any and all of the organization’s enterprise environmental factors and systems that surround and influence the project’s success must be considered. ’ (PMI, 2004, p. 83) 4. 1. 4Organizational Process Assets Defines in PMI, 2004, p. 84 All of the assets that are used to influence the project’s success can be drawn from organizational process assets. Any and all of the organizations involved in the project can have formal and informal policies, procedures, plans, and guidelines whose effects must be considered. Organizational process assets also represent the organizations’ learning and knowledge from previous projects; for example, completed schedules, risk data, and earned value data. Organizational process assets can be organized differently, depending on the type of industry, organization, and application area. 4. 2. Tools and Technique of PM Plan PM Plan consist of three major components and they are, 4. 2. 1Project Management Methodology ‘Defines a process that aids a project management team in developing and controlling changes to the preliminary project scope statement. ’ (PMI, 2004, p. 87) 4. 2. 2Project Management Information System ‘Defines an automated system, is used by the project management team to support generation of a preliminary project scope statement, facilitate feedback, as the document is refined, control changes to the project scope statement, and release the approved document. (PMI, 2004, p. 88) 4. 2. 3Expert Judgment ‘Is applied to any technical and management details to be included in the preliminary project scope statement. ’ (PMI, 2004, p. 88) 4. 3. Output of a PM Plan Ideally the output of a PM Plan are all the collected information above and base the scenario of the project the PM Plan can be presented in the ways where it ‘may be recorded in project software, or at minimum presented as a loose-leaf files of documents’ (Lake, 1997, p. 104-5) 5. Conclusions Summarise from the discussion above, development of PM Plan is critical success factors in running a project. PM Plan is a primary source of information of how the project goes through all the five projects management process in defining, planning, executing, monitoring, controls, and closing of project and all the nine areas of project management book of knowledge (PMBOK ® Guide). PM Plan is a document that tells its audience where they are and where they are heading and this document have eight knowledge areas that are important and these information required to be used as integrated document between the knowledge areas. Inputs, tools, techniques are a structure how PM Plan is develop. Inputs of PM Plan consist of four major elements, the preliminary scope statement of a project, the project management of process of PMBOK ® Guide, the environmental of the enterprise, and the organisation process assets. With these combinations of information and with the tools and techniques in methodology of controlling and defining the inputs, project management information system, and expert judgement contributes to a PM Plan. As describe by Bourne, 2009, The PMBOK ® Guide is a knowledge framework that contains processes that are generally applicable to most projects, most of the time. The consequence of this is the processes need tailoring for specific projects. The PMBOK ® Guide is developed by hundreds of project managers from around the world and the result is a coordinated amalgam of ideas. PMI has aspirations for the profession of project management. Some underlying themes found in the majority of questions such as the high level of proficiency of the performing organisation and the professional competence of the project managers may be a stretch based on the culture of your organisation but are highly desirable aims and are not unrealistic. This does not devalue the way you do your projects. As long as the projects manages are constantly delivered on time, on budget, on scope and fully satisfying all of the key stakeholders. If this happens, the approach to project management is obviously right in the context you are working in. It is just your way is different to the generally accepted way most successful projects are delivered worldwide. 6. Recommendations As an organisation, that runs project a PM Plan is a minimum requirement in all project management. PMBOK, PRINCE2 are some of the easily available book of knowledge the project manager should get familiar when planning and executing a project. PM Plan undertakes by the project manager should tailor according to the complexity of the project and other consideration concerning the project environment and organisation process assets are some of the consideration when developing a PM Plan. Hence with these considerations probably not all of the eight knowledge areas in PMI 2004, PMBOK or seven knowledge areas in PRINCE 2 knowledge will be define, plan, execute, monitor control and closed. In this context at least four of the major project management process that require immediate attention and further improvement are on scope statement and scope management plan. Where this scope statement provides a common understanding to the project stakeholders and scope planning detail how the scope will be control, manage, and define. On time management the planning of schedule alone without analysing the activities and WBS need immediate changes. Activities definition, duration estimation, activity sequencing, critical path, network planning, and milestone are required in this process. In cost management, probably this is the most comprehensive process conducted by the organisation but further enhancement on the EVM , IRR and NPV may need to be incorporated for decision making during for the whole duration of the project life cycle. Finally are on the human resource management in the context of work force planning. ‘Workforce planning is an iterative discipline. The cycle of workforce planning includes filling resource requests, analysing utilization, forecasting capacity, managing and identifying the people to fill that capacity, and then starting the cycle again. ’ (Melik, 2008

Student Portfolio Assessment Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Student Portfolio Assessment - Dissertation Example Yet, researchers lack an agreement on the components of listening. Various research studies attempted to provide empirical support (Buck & Tatsuoka, 1998; Kostin, 2004) and theoretical taxonomies Mendelsohn, 1994) for the sub-skills of listening processes. None of these taxonomies could be exhaustive and comprehensive descriptions of the listening process (Buck, 2001). Literature Review The literature reviewed in this paper concentrates on studies relevant to testing listening. Powers (1985) aimed to validate the use of TOEFL listening tests and investigated listening activities important to academic success across disciplines. Powers conducted surveys to faculty members, students, and admission officers at universities. The survey investigated the importance of various listening activities to academic success and problems with these activities for native and nonnative speakers. The results may be used to check validity of test score uses. The following activities were rated as very important in academic contexts. Identifying major themes or ideas Identifying relationships among major ideas Identifying the topic of a lecture Retaining information through note-taking Retrieving information from notes Inferring relationships between information Comprehending key vocabulary Following the spoken mode of lecture Identifying supporting ideas and examples Several studies investigated the factors affecting item difficulty of the TOEFL listening comprehension test. Nissan et al (1995) was the initiating study that investigated the stimulus-related and item-related features that contributed to item difficulty. They used TOEFL dialogue items and Equated Delta, an item difficulty index from classical test theory, to predict item difficulty. Seventeen independent features common in dialogue items were selected as variables. Using 283 TOEFL dialogue items, the study found five variables that have a significant impact on the Delta: word frequency, utterance pattern, negative in stimulus, explicit/implicit information, and role of speakers. Infrequent vocabulary was the word that was not on Berger's (1977) list. The utterance pattern showed that when the second utterance was in the form of statements, the items were significantly more difficult than those that ended in a question. More than one negative in the stimulus significantly increased the mean Delta value. The items that required test takers to identify implied information tend to be more difficult than those that required understanding of explicit information. When the speaker was not a casual acquaintance or a classmate, the item became significantly more difficult. In terms of the effect of the combinations of those five variables, the study found that combinations of variables had stronger impact on the item difficulty index than any individual variable. Combinations of three variables, word frequency, utterance pattern, and inference, had the greatest impact on the Delta. This study was mean ingful to identify the significant features of listening tests that could predict item difficulty. However, the features were selected based on the linguistic characteristics of texts and items without theoretical considerations. Thus, the generalization of finding could be limited to the effect of textual characteristics on item difficulty. Several studies followed their research frame. While Nissan et al used the items of the